The English commonwealth and its effect on Caribbean Nations Essay

The English commonwealth and its effect on Caribbean Nations - Essay Example Bakker-Mitchell, noted educator at Florida A & M, discusses education as it existed in the Colonial era and urges more attention to foreign language teaching and learning in a growing global community. She notes that in the 1960s most of the countries in the English speaking Caribbean received their independence. Before this time, education in the Caribbean was geared for life in Britain. Textbooks were of British origin and students were familiar with the conversion table that indicated how many cents equalled one shilling--the pounds, shillings and pence table--even though dollars and cents were used in the country and very little in school readers related to the lives of persons in the Caribbean.Bakker-Mitchell is from what was British Guiana, now Guyana, which is a member of the British Commonwealth. This article is valuable as a contrast between the years of British rule and the current independent rule in most Caribbean countries, with its present stress on language as part of Caribbean, not British, culture. Bakker-Mitchell considers it extremely important for students in English speaking Caribbean to become fluent in the languages of their neighboring countries and is concerned that this is not a priority. In the development of the Caribbean, she considers education a major priority.Cateau H. and Pemberton, R. Beyond Tradition: Reinterpreting the Caribbean Historical Experience (Essays). Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers, 2006. Cateau and Pemberton selected a group of essays intended to re-interpret Caribbean history from the 18th through the 20th centuries, replacing the 'objective' view with a 'subjective' view of the region. One essay, "Nineteenth-Twentieth Century Trinidad and Tobago," will be useful as a comparison between Jamaica and Trinidad. The overall focus of the book on Caribbean identity and people gives a more realistic view of the area, moving away from the sugar plantation. Another essay looks at the role of Britain as a key trade center fr om the 18th to the 19th centuries, not just in the Caribbean, but throughout the whole English Atlantic. Cateau and Pemberton are lecturers at the University of West Indies, with Cateau specializing in economic history, while Pemberton's specialty is health and environment history. Federal Research Division. 1987. Commonwealth of Caribbean Islands. Library of Congress. Online. Available: 11 June 2006. A paper on the effects of the British Commonwealth on the development and under-development of the English-speaking Caribbean requires studying the specific areas and comparing them to determine what changes must be made to encourage growth. The Library of Congress Country Studies series gives a detailed, online, chapter-by-chapter overview of the Commonwealth of the Caribbean, with Chapter 2 covering Jamaica and Chapter 3 covering Trinidad and Tobago, two very contrasting areas. Jamaica is dependent on agriculture and tourism, while Trinidad is important as an oil-supplier. Other countries included in this topic are the Windward Islands and Barbados, the Leeward Islands and the Northern Islands. As a foundation, this source is recommended. History of Jamaica. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Online. Available: Last modified 9 June 2006. 11 June 2006. Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia with researched articles that can be edited. Even so, the information in these articles is for the most part verifiable and easy to read with links to various related subjects. Since Jamaica is one of the most visible countries in the English speaking Caribbean, it has importance in a study of culture, economy and politics. Although it would be easy to see what is called the English Commonwealth as a single

Analyzing the Similarities between “Hymn to the Aton” and “Psalm 104” Essay Example for Free

Analyzing the Similarities between â€Å"Hymn to the Aton† and â€Å"Psalm 104† Essay The thought that two different works of art written by authors of different countries, different backgrounds, living eight hundred years apart and centering on religion—more [specifically] their portrayal of God and how he is like the sun—[being similar] would [be] deem[ed] [as] impossible [or not likely by many]. [However,] the poems [â€Å"]Hymn to the Aton[† by Akhenaton] and [â€Å"]Psalm 104[† by David are examples of] this very occurrence. [Some scholars assert] that either the latter was copied from the former or that these two works are the result of a cultural split, [due to the] vast difference of [similar] elements [and subject matter that the poems share. ] the poems were fostered within, their similarities in content, and that the poems could not have been creative coincidence. The benefits in understanding that these works have some connection, whether by plagiarism or cultural dissect, provides scholars with more knowledge about the world we live in, helps to decipher some of the myths and mysteries of other cultures with similarities and shows the public all cultures may not be as different from each other as we think, helps to show that propaganda has been used since the earliest of times, and that if societies do not document their findings or creations people will eventually circle back and rediscover them. Collectively, if applied to the modern world, these benefits will advances in many fields of academia and help society at large to become more critical thinkers and problem solvers. [Based on your body paragraphs, I have simplified your thesis map to the following:] [The three clearest similarities of the two poems include their similar discussion of the power of the sun or the notion of the sun as a symbol for the power of God, the similarities of the daily activities of the two cultures and their link to their God, and the emphasis of monotheism.] [Now, provide one or two sentences that explain what current societal issue can be resolved or lessened through the realization of the similarity of these two poems.] The contrast between Hymn to the Aton and Psalm 104 are numerous. Hymn was written by Pharaoh Amenhotep IV around 1300 B.C.E. in order to help support his efforts to convert all of Egypt to monotheism and worship of the Sun, which called Aton. [First, it is uncanny the manner in which both poets use the sun as a point of reference for their God]. In [â€Å"Hymn to the Aton† Akhenaton proclaims] the actual Sun [as] god. â€Å"Thou living Aton the beginning of life!Creator of seed in women, Thou who makes fluid into man, Who maintainest the son in the womb of this mother..† In the psalm, King David writes how God created the sun [to] reflect His greatness. [Provide a quote from â€Å"Psalm 104† that shows David discussing the sun.] â€Å"LORD my God, you are very great; you are clothe with splendor and majesty†¦ But at your rebuke the waters fled, at the sound of your thunder they took flight†. King David’s poem was written about eight hundred years after the hymn and David does not mention much about himself, instead he praises the Lord. â€Å"I will sing to the LORD all my life; I will sing praise to my God as long as I live.† Based on the time and purpose of these poems, they could not have been coincidence, that the poems are similar, there had to have been a purposeful connection between them. [While there are slight variations of how the sun is used, in both poems the writers explain how the sun meets the needs of the people and how that act is a symbol of the greatness and goodness of God.] Understanding this connection helps us to discover more and develop our perception about the world around us. [How so? Explain how it can benefit one group of people to be able to realize similarities with another group of people with whom they have historically seen no connection.] [Next, both poems] list almost identical daily activities in the exact order throughout the works. â€Å"[Provide quotes from both poems.]† Many of these [similarities] seem to be paraphrased and suggest that these writing come from the same source like two eye witness accounts of the same crime. After understanding the differences in the author’s cultures, religions, and time periods these similarities support the claim that the works are connected either by plagiarism or cultural split. This helps [readers] to realize that many cultures may not be as different from one another as [people often] think. [Yes, and how can this realization help our culture or society? What societal issue or problem can be solved or lessened with this realization?] Based upon detailed examination [of] the similarities of the [poems, many scholars assert that the shared elements, especially the support of monotheism, are not] by coincidence. [Provide a quote supporting monotheism from both poems.] Some researchers suggest that Hebrews fleeing from Egypt before the time of Moses, some of them wondered into temples where the hymn was written, and has the walked along the hymn was one songs they sang and it was carried throughout the generations, but not that the psalm is not a plagiarism of the hymn, this only leaves the notion that there was a cultural split. We are not sure at this point how the works are linked, [While scholars disagree on which group influenced the other into embracing monotheism, it is clear that a cultural exchange occurred between the two groups. Thus, this realization of the similarity is another example for scientists and anthropologists showing that cultures have always exchanged ideas. This exchange of ideas becomes even more interesting when we realize that the Jews were enslaved by the Egyptians.] but it could definitely give more light and support to how scientist and anthropologist other academic researchers and make strides in their fields, help us to understand how cultures are linked across the board. [Explain how discovering that these two ancient cultures exchanged ideas can provide a blueprint or inspiration for current cultures and how that blueprint or inspiration can help those cultures solve or lessen a current societal issue.] After deep analysis s of these two poems it is clear that one is either copied from the other or [that there was some mutual exchange of cultural ideas] at some point in history. [Using the two poems to realize this occurrence] helps historians and scientists to make deductions about connections [to] other cultures, [allowing more people to better understand the surrounding world]. [Yes, now explain how society can improve if more people are able to understand and connect to the surrounding world or the people surrounding them

Analysis of Drug Delivery Systems

Analysis of Drug Delivery Systems INTRODUTION SECTION 1.1: ORAL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM A drug delivery system is defined as a formulation or a device that can be introduce the therapeutic or pharmaceutical substance in to the body and improves the efficacy and safety of substance by controlling the time, rate and place of drug release in the body. Drug delivery system is an interface between the patient and the drug. It may be a formulation of drug to administer it for a therapeutic or medical reason or a device used drug delivery. Oral drug delivery system is most desirable, preferable and suitable route for the administration of therapeutic and pharmaceutical agents for administration. Historically the oral route of drug administration has been the one used most for both conventional as well as the novel drug delivery. The reasons for this preference are obvious because of ease of administration. Oral drug delivery is the most desirable, suitable and preferred method of administering therapeutic agents for their systemic effects. The oral medication is mostly conside red as the first investigation in the development and discovery of new drug molecules and pharmaceutical preparations, mainly because of acceptance by the patients, convenience, and cost effective manufacturing process. For many drug substances conventional immediate release formulations provide clinically and therapeutically effective therapy while maintaining the required level of pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles with acceptable level of safety to the patient. Multiple unit dosage forms such as microspheres or micro beads have gained in popularity as oral drug delivery systems because of high uniformity of the drug distribution in the gastrointestinal tract, better drug absorption, minimized local irritation and elimination of unwanted intestinal retention of polymers and other excipients, when compared to non-disintegrating single unit dosage form.2 SECTION 1.2: CONTROLLED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM A wide variety of newer oral drug delivery systems like sustained/controlled release dosage forms are designed and evaluated in order to overcome the limitations of conventional therapy. These products are able to maintain steady drug plasma levels for extended periods of time as a result the variations of the drug levels in the blood are prevented and minimized drug related side effects.3 The controlled release drug delivery systems are aimed at controlling the rate of drug delivery, sustaining the time period of therapeutic activity and targeting the drug delivery to a tissue. Drug release from these systems should be at a desired rate, predictable and reproducible. Among the various approaches for controlled systems, microencapsulation process and microcapsules have gained good acceptance as a process to achieve controlled release and drug targeting.4 The goal in designing sustained or controlled delivery system is to reduce the frequency of dosing or to increase the effectiveness of the drug by localization at the site action, reducing the dose required, or providing uniform drug delivery.5 Of growing interest generally in the world of oral drug delivery is colon-targeted delivery for treatment of both local and systemic conditions. It is recognised that this region of the Gastrointestinal tract offers advantages over the stomach and small intestine, e.g. milder pH, lower enzymatic activity, lower bile salt concentrations, longer residence time and slower turnover of the mucus layer. For biopharmaceutical delivery, it also appears to offer the benefit of allowing greater functioning of absorption enhancers, thus allowing reasonable bioavailability of drugs such as peptides which would normally be poorly absorbed from the GI tract.6 Controlled release systems are used in the improvement of the effectiveness of drug therapy. These systems modify several parameters of the drug: the release profile and capacity to cross biological carriers (depending on the size of the particle), biodistribution, clearance, and stability (metabolism), among others. In other words, the pharmacokinetics and the pharmacodynamics of the drug are modified by these formulations. Controlled release offers numerous advantages over conventional dosage forms. This approach increases therapeutic activity and decreases side effects, thus reducing the number of drug dosages required during treatment. Controlled release methods offer an appropriate tool for site-specific and time-controlled drug delivery. There are two main situations in which the distribution and time-controlled delivery of a drug can be beneficial- When the natural distribution of the drug causes major side effects due to its interaction with other tissues. When the natural drug distribution does not allow it to reach its molecular site of action due to degradation. Many different kinds of drugs can benefit from distribution or time-controlled delivery, such as anti-inflammatory agents, antibiotics, chemotherapeutic drugs, immunosuppressants, anesthetics and vaccines.7 1.2.1: Advantages of oral controlled release formulations Oral controlled drug delivery has been widely preferred in research because of its large number of benefits over conventional dosage forms, some of which are as follows: The frequency of dosing is less due to drug being released for a longer duration of time than conventional dosage form. This is highly valuable for the patients with chronic disease and illnesses which required to maintaining the plasma concentrations of a drug within the range of therapeutic effects to avoid breakthrough symptoms. The reduction or avoidance of side effects due to high plasma drug concentrations or ‘dose dumping’. Improvement of the patient compliance because of reduced dosing. Better control on the concentration of therapeutic drug in body. Cost effective manufacturing as the amount of dose required per patient would be reduced as compared to its conventional dosage form.8 SECTION 1.3: COATING OF FORMULATION Coating is defined as a process by which dosage form is covered with an essentially dry, outer layer of coating material by applying it on the surface of a formulation or dosage form for specific benefits that broadly ranges from improving product identification to modifying the release of the drug from the formulation. After making a good formulation, one must often coat it for many benefits. There are five reasons for putting such a coating on a pharmaceutical formulation: Protection of active pharmaceutical ingredients, from the acidic environment of the stomach (e.g. enzymes and certain antibiotics). To prevent gastric distress or nausea from a drug due to irritation (e.g. sodium salicylate ). For the delivery of drugs that are optimally absorbed in the small intestine to their primary absorption site in their most concentrated form. To provide a delayed/sustained release of drug substance for repeat action. Required for minimizing first pass metabolism of drugs.19 1.3.1: Coating material The coating material should be capable of forming a film that is cohesive with the materials required for coating, should be chemically compatible with the material and must be non reactive with the core material and provide the desired coating properties such as strength, impermeability, optical properties stability and flexibility. When coating is done by microencapsulation techniques the size of thickness of coating is in microscopic units. A number of different substances both non-biodegradable and biodegradable have been investigated for the formulation of microcapsules. These materials include the polymers of synthetic natural and origin and also modified natural substances. Some of the polymers used in the preparation of the microcapsules are classified and listed. 1.3.2: Ideal properties of an enteric coating material Resistance from the gastric fluids Permeable/Susceptible to the intestinal fluid Should be compatibility with the most components of coating solution and the substrates of the drug Formation of uniform and continuous film Cheap, nontoxic and easy to apply Provide ability in readily printed19 1.3.3: EUDRAGIT S100 Eudragit S100 is anionic copolymers based on methacrylic acid and methyl methacrylate. The IUPAC name of edragit S100 is Poly(methacrylic acid-co-methyl methacrylate). Eudragit S100 contains 30% of methacrylic units and dissolves at pH values higher than 7.0. Eudragit S100 is suitable coating agent for controlled and colon targeted drug delivery system.10 Eudragit S100 is an effective and stable enteric coating agent with fast dissolution in upper bowl. It is generally accepted that pH7 is not normally reached until at least the distal small bowel/ileocaecal region; thus drug release from formulations coated with Eudragit S100 is likely to commence at the junction between the small intestine and colon, continuing into the colon.6 SECTION 1.4: NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMATORY DRUGS Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are considered to be the first-line drugs in the symptomatic treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondilytis and osteoarthritis. Aceclofenac is one of the emerging NSAID molecules for the treatment of arthritis. Aceclofenac is a new derivative of diclofenac and has less gastrointestinal complications. All drugs grouped in this class have analgesic, antipyretic antiinflammatory action in different measures. They do not depress CNS, do not produce the physical dependence, are weaker analgesics and have no abuse liability. They are more commonly employed and many are over-the-counter drugs.21 1.4.1: ACECLOFENAC Aceclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, widely used in the management of osteoarthritis, ankylosing, rheumatoid arthritis and spondylitis. Usual therapeutic dose is 100 mg twice daily and half life is 3-4 hrs; thus it is necessary to be administered frequently in order to maintain the desired concentration. 1.4.2: MECHANISM OF ACTION Aceclofenac drug acts as non selective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase enzyme(COX). It inhibits both cyclooxygenase-1(COX-1) and cyclooxygense-2 (COX-2) isoenzymes. COX catalyses the formation of prostaglandin and thromboxane from archidonic acid. Prostaglandins act like messenger molecules in the process of pain and inflammation. Aceclofenac also have antipyretic activity and be used in treatment of pyrexiya. The reason of fever is the elevation in the levels of PGE2. Aceclofenac inhibits the biosynthesis of PGE2 within the hypothalamus to reduce the fever. Archidonic acid is precursor substrate for COX which helps to lead the production of prostaglandins F, D and E.22 SECTION 1.5: MICROENCAPSULATION Microencapsulation is a rapidly expanding technology for the preparation of formulatios in which drug is present as core material covered by polymer. As a process, it is a means applying relatively a thin coating to small solid particles or liquids droplets and dispersions. Microencapsulation is arbitrarily differentiated from macro-coating techniques in that the farmer involves the coating of particles is in the range between several tenths of a micron to 5000 microns in size.23 Microencapsulation is process by which thin coating can be applied reproducibly to small solids particles or liquid droplets or dispersions or even gases are encapsulated into micro sonic particles. Particle size range dimensionally from 1 Â µm to 1000 Â µm.9 Particulate drug delivery system are gaining more prominence in recent years because they uniformly distribute in the GIT there by improve the bioavailability of the drugs and also reduces the local irritation. Due to attractive properties and wider applications of microparticles, their application in controlled release formulation is appropriate. Microencapsulation is a rapidly expanding technology. Microencapsulation helps in converting the liquids into the solids, altering colloidal and surface properties of formulation, in providing environmental and external protection and in controlling the release behaviour or availability of coated materials. 1.5.1: Applications of microencapsulation In the development and the design of controlled and sustained release dosage form. Alteration in site of absorption. To mask the taste of bitter drugs. To provide the protection to the core material from atmospheric effects. To minimize gastric and other GIT irritation. In the preparation of free flowing powder formulations from drugs in liquid forms. Stabilization of drugs which are sensitive to moisture, light or oxygen. In the elimination of incompatibilities among drugs. Prevention of volatile drugs from vaporization. Reduction of toxicity. To reduce hygroscopicity. Alteration in site of absorption. 1.5.2: MICROENCAPSULATION BY IONOTROPIC GELATION METHOD Alginates have ability to form gels by reaction with calcium salts. Alginic acid is composed of D-mannuronic acid and L-gluronic acid residues at varying proportions of GG-, MM- and MG- blocks. When suspension of alginate is added drop by drop to the solution of calcium salt, crosslinking takes place between the carboxylate residue of GG- blocks and Ca+2 ions via egg-box model to give a tight gel network structure. This method is called ionotropic gelation method because in this process the anion of alginate and cation of calcium salt (mostly Ca+2ion) crosslinked to form a gel. These gels resemble a solid retaining their shape, resisting stress and consist of almost 100% water. It has been suggested that the cross-links are caused by simple ionic bridging of two carboxyl groups on adjacent polymer chain via calcium ions or by chelating of single calcium ions by hydroxyl and carboxyl groups on each a pair of polymer chains.24 In this method strong spherical beads with a narrow range particle size distribution and lower friability could be prepared. Beads formed by this method have high yield and drug content. The flow properties of micronized of needle like drug crystals can be improved by the help of agglomeration technique as compared to the non-agglomerated drug crystals. The ionic character of the polymers results from pH dependent disintegration of the beads. SECTION 1.6: GEL BEADS Gel beads are defined as spherical structure in which drug is present in the core of beads. Different types of gel beads can be prepared by using various techniques. Gel beads help in the slow dissolution of drug hence slowdown the release of drug, thus results in improvement of bioavailability of drug. 1.6.1: APPLICATIONS GEL BEADS Stomach specific drug delivery using floating alginate gel beads A multiple unit type oral floating dosage form of many drug have been developed in recent years. Drugs like riboflavin, ranitidine, diclofenac sodium were formulated to prolong the gastric residence time and increase bioavailability. Colon targeting Beads of various drugs have been formulated and further coated with enteric polymers for colon targeting. Protein drug delivery In recent years many formulations have been prepared for protein drug molecules for site specific release of protein in the intestine. Microbeads as inoculants and carriers for plant growth-promoting bacteria Beads of various bacteria are developed in recent years to promote the growth of plants. The release of bacteria from the microbeads depends on its type (wet or dry) and the time of incubation (the longer the incubation time, the smaller the extent of bacteria released with time). Enzyme immobilization Enzymes are immobilized by formation ofdehydrated gel beads for use in non-aqueous enzymatic reactions by having an average particle size of 5 to 150 microns.

I Hope to Explain the Birth of Our Universe :: Graduate Admissions Essays

I Hope to Explain the Birth of Our Universe. Â   Since childhood, the studies of philosophy and science have interested me profoundly. Having read many books on relativity, quantum mechanics, existentialism, religion, capitalism, democracy and post-Aristotelian philosophy, my quest for knowledge has only intensified. Certainly, the purpose of my life is to discover a greater understanding of the universe and its people. Specifically, I plan to better grasp the interrelationship among forces, matter, space, and time. In addition, I hope to find a unified field theory and a convincing explanation for the birth of the universe. Â   During the summer of tenth grade, I took a number theory course at Johns Hopkins University with students from Alaska, California, and Bogota, Colombia. My attendance of the New Jersey Governor's School in the Sciences is another accomplishment that exemplifies my dedication to knowledge. During the summer following eleventh grade, I took courses in molecular orbital theory, special relativity, cognitive psychology, and I participated in an astrophysics research project. For my independent research project, I used a telescope to find the angular velocity of Pluto. With the angular velocity determined, I used Einstein's field equations and Kepler's laws to place an upper bound on the magnitude of the cosmological constant, which describes the curvature of space and the rate of the universe's expansion. Â   In addition to learning science, I recently lectured physics classes on special relativity at the request of my physics teacher. After lecturing one class for 45 minutes, one student bought many books on both general and special relativity to read during his study hall. Inspiring other students to search for knowledge kindles my own quest to understand the world and the people around me. Â   Also, as president of the National Honor Society, I tutor students with difficulties in various subject areas. Moreover, I am ranked number one in my class, and I am the leading member of the Math Team, the Academic Team, and the Model Congress Team. In the area of leadership, I have recently received the Rotary Youth Leadership Award from a local rotary club and have been asked to attend the National Youth Leadership Forum on Law and the Constitution in Washington D.C. Currently enrolled in Spanish 6,I am a member of both the Spanish Club and the Spanish Honor Society. Â   As student council president, I have begun a biweekly publication of student council activities and opinions.

An Analysis of Witi Ihimaera’s Whale Rider Essay

In Witi Ihimaera’s novel â€Å"Whale Rider† we follow Rawiri as he goes through his life watching the growth, incidents and magic of his niece Kahu. Kahu is destined to be the next chief of the Maori in Whangara, New Zealand, a tribe that has descended from the legendary â€Å"whale rider.† However, Kahu is, as Nanny Flowers says, â€Å"Hungry for [her grandfather’s] love,† (Ihimaera 34) and struggles to receive it because she is a girl. The author presents this story through Kahu’s Uncle Rawiri’s point of view, and this outside view of Kahu is brilliant because it creates tension between what the reader, author, Rawiri and Kahu are thinking and allows the reader to fill in the gaps themselves. The story would lack suspense and motivation if we knew Kahu’s thoughts and would lose all aspects of mystery. Whale Rider creates a distorted medium between reality and the character’s minds, which is what keeps the reader guessing, second-guessing and questioning all the way up until the moment of truth in the end. Ihimaera makes it the reader’s job to presume Kahu’s thoughts as opposed to actually providing them. Rawiri comes into play in that that he has had a special connection with Kahu since her birth, and being in a first-person perspective with Rawiri makes Rawiri like the reader in that they mutually want all of the answers. If the novel were from the point of view of Kahu, the main focus, the plot would lose all curiosity. It was thought provoking and interesting to see Kahu strive for her grandfather’s acceptance from before she could even walk. If Kahu narrated then we wouldn’t be able to experience her development from birth, and would lose all of her toddler years. Those years keep Kahu a â€Å"question† and make us, like Rawiri, unable to wait for her to come of age and either become the whale rider or not. Whale Rider carries itself primarily on motivation towards â€Å"the end†. For the readers it is for the book’s climax. For Rawiri, Nanny Flowers, and even Kahu herself, it is for the end of Kahu’s childhood and for the answers to be revealed. Ihimaera does a great job of manipulating the motivation of the reader and intertwining it with the motivation of the characters while also leaving a prism in the middle of reality and literature where some of the  gaps and missing pieces are left to be filled with the reader’s empathy, curiosity and imagination.

Existentialism in Literature Essay

Existentialism in literature is a movement or tendency that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice. While Existentialism was never an organized literary movement, the tenets of this philosophy have influenced many diverse writers around the world and readers can detect existential elements in their fiction. Americans writers like William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway and John Steinbeck reveal existential elements in their writing. Perhaps the most prominent theme in existentialist writing is that of choice. Humanity’s primary distinction, in the view of most existentialists, is the freedom to choose. Because we are free to choose our own paths, existentialists have argued, we must accept the risk and responsibility of following our commitments wherever they lead. American writers Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson often wrote about these concepts. Existentialism is not dark. It is not depressing. Existentialism is about life. Existentialists believe in living—and in fighting for life. The politics of existentialist writers around the world varies widely, but each seeks the most individual freedom for people within a society. Despite encompassing this wide range of philosophical, religious, and political ideologies, the underlying concepts of existentialism are constant: ? Mankind has free will ? Life is a series of choices ? Few decisions are without any negative consequences ? Some events and occurrences are irrational or absurd, without explanation. ? If one makes a decision, he or she must follow through. So existentialism, broadly defined, is a set of philosophical systems concerned with free will, choice, and personal responsibility. Because we make choices based on our experiences, beliefs, and biases, those choices are unique to us—and made without an objective form of truth. There are no â€Å"universal† guidelines for most decisions, existentialists believe. Even trusting science is often a â€Å"leap of faith. † The existentialists conclude that human choice is subjective, because individuals finally must make their own choices without help from such external standards as laws, ethical rules, or traditions. Because individuals make their own choices, they are free; but because they freely choose, they are completely responsible for their choices. The existentialists emphasize that freedom is necessarily accompanied by responsibility. Furthermore, since individuals are forced to choose for themselves, they have their freedom—and therefore their responsibility—thrust upon them. They are â€Å"condemned to be free. † Many existentialist writers stress the importance of passionate individual action in deciding questions of both personal morality and truth. Personal experience and acting on one’s own convictions are essential in arriving at the truth. 17th-century French philosopher and existentialist Blaise Pascal saw human existence in terms of paradoxes. He believed that â€Å"We know truth, not only by reason, but also by the heart. † And as many existentialists, he acknowledges that â€Å"It is the fight alone that pleases us, not the victory. † The modern adage that the journey is more important than the final destination applies to this idea. Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard, who was the first writer to call himself existential, reacted against traditional thoughts by insisting that the highest good for the individual is to find his or her own unique vocation. As he wrote in his journal, â€Å"I must find a truth that is true for me . . . the idea for which I can live or die. † Existentialists have argued that no objective, rational basis can be found for moral decisions. The 19th-century German philosopher, Friedrich Nietzsche contended that the individual using free will must decide which situations are to count as moral situations. He believed that â€Å"There are no facts, only interpretations. † . . . and he is famous for this well known adage:â€Å"That which does not kill me, makes me stronger. † The 19th-century Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky is probably the most well-known existentialist literary figure. In his book Notes from the Underground the alienated anti-hero questions experiences in life that are unpredictable and sometimes self-destructive. French writer, Jean Paul Sartre wrote that man can will nothing unless he has first understood that he must count on no one but himself; that he is alone, abandoned on earth in the midst of his infinite responsibilities, without help, with no other aim than the one he sets himself, with no other destiny than the one he forges for himself on this earth. There is no ultimate meaning or purpose inherent in human life; in this sense life is absurd. We are forlorn, abandoned in the world to look after ourselves completely. The only foundation for values is human freedom, and that there can be no external or objective justification for the values anyone chooses to adopt. † When the Swedish Academy granted the Nobel Prize in Literature to Sartre for his work which, they recognized as â€Å"rich in ideas and filled with the spirit of freedom and the quest for truth, [that] has exerted a far-reaching influence on our age,† Sartre made it known that he did not wish to accept the prize. In a public announcement, in1964, Sartre expressed his regret that his refusal of the prize had given rise to a scandal, and he wished it to be known that his refusal was not meant to slight the Swedish Academy but was rather based on personal and objective reasons. Sartre pointed out that due to his conception of the writer’s task he had always declined official honors so this act was not unprecedented. He had similarly refused other awards offered to him. He stated that a writer’s acceptance of such an honor would be to associate his personal commitments with the awarding institution, and that, above all, a writer should not allow himself to be turned into an institution.